Language domination and linguistic imposition have always been an issue of political debate in India. In a linguistically diverse country, such debates are inevitable. However, the concern is not the debate itself but its nature. The current discourse on language debate gives an impression that the debate is not towards promoting regional languages but creating conflict between the various linguistic identities. Most of the commentary expressed apprehension regarding the growth and survival of regional languages with the imposition of Hindi.
However, both perspectives are misplaced. First, there is no explicit policy or attempt to promote Hindi at the expense of regional languages. Second, concerns about the survival of regional languages with Hindi’s expansion lack empirical support — census data do not indicate a decline in the number of regional language speakers.
Language is the primary means of communication, and individuals often learn languages other than their mother tongue to facilitate broader interactions. In a linguistically diverse country where States and regions are identified based on specific language, the mother tongue differs from one place to another. Learning an alternative language suitable for communication becomes important with the evolving reality of the rising mobility of individuals from their State to another in search of livelihood and various other reasons. However, as inter-State mobility increases due to economic opportunities and social factors, learning an additional language becomes essential. Now the issue is that if a person moves to a place where her mother tongue is not spoken, which language should she learn? A person who frequently moves across States or regions is likely to learn a language widely used for mass communication. Alternatively, she may choose to learn the local language of each new State if she stays for a longer stint.
Major spoken languages
Hindi and English are the two most spoken languages in India. According to the 2011 Census, Hindi was the mother tongue for 528.3 million people, which constitutes 43.6% of the population of the country. In addition, 138.9 million people reported Hindi as their second language of communication and 24.3 million as the third language. Overall, 691.5 million people, or 57.1% of the total population, can communicate in Hindi. In 2011, only 2,59,678 people reported English as their mother tongue, but there are 128.5 million people speaking English as second or third language, constituting 10.6% of the total population of the country. Since English is the medium of higher education in India, nearly all academic activities, such as writing research papers and participating in seminars and conferences, use English as the mode of communication. However, this remains limited to the educated class and does not serve as a popular means of communication.
Language adoption
The Census estimates indicate that the percentage of bilingual and trilingual speakers is significantly higher among individuals residing in States where the native language differs from their mother tongue. For instance, 37.5% of Assamese residing in Assam know a second language. However, this percentage rises to approximately 71% when they live outside Assam. Similar trends are observed for other languages, such as Bengali (10.8% vs 54.2%), Gujarati (39.8% vs 83.5%), Punjabi (47.6% vs 70.8%), Hindi (8.3% vs 51.2%), Kannada (23.1% vs 73.4%), Malayalam (23.4% vs 80.7%), Tamil (22.2% vs 73.2%), Telugu (17.9% vs 75.1%), and Kashmiri (43.3% vs 79.7%). On average, among those speaking 13 mother tongues, while 30% of the native population knows a second language in their home State, this rises to 72% when they move outside their State.
The second stylised fact is that the proportion of trilingual speakers is also much higher among migrants. For instance, only 2.5% of Bengalis in West Bengal know a third language, but this increases to 15.1% when they live outside the State. Similar trends are observed for other languages such as Gujarati (13.1% vs 46.9%), Punjabi (29.8% vs 25.7%), Hindi (0.9% vs 9.2%), Kannada (7.3% vs 21.1%), Malayalam (9.3% vs 45.7%), Tamil (1.6% vs 29.1%), Telugu (6.5% vs 19.8%), and Kashmiri (14.4% vs 40.8%). On average, among those speaking 13 mother tongues, 9.7% of the native population knows a third language in their home State, whereas this increases to 26.3% when they reside in other States.
Third, this data underscores the impact of migration and linguistic diversity in fostering multilingualism in India. Furthermore, it clearly shows that rather than a decline, the number of regional language speakers has actually increased.
Fourth, this data is 14 years old. Over the past decade-and-a-half, inter-State migration has surged, alongside the rapid expansion of information technology, entertainment media, and intercultural interactions through inter-State marriages. Since these factors have significantly contributed to breaking cultural and linguistic barriers, the number of natives speaking a second or third language would have risen substantially.
Common language
While regional languages must be actively promoted, a country as diverse as India — with significant inter-State migration — inevitably develops a common language for nationwide communication. Historically, languages with the largest number of speakers tend to gain wider acceptance for cross-regional communication. Therefore, any person who needs to communicate with someone speaking a different mother tongue must learn a language they both understand.
However, when individuals frequently interact with people from multiple linguistic backgrounds, it becomes impractical to learn every language. In such cases, people tend to adopt a widely spoken language that allows them to communicate with the largest number of people. The choice of this secondary language may vary based on individual communication needs. For instance, a person from Gujarat working in Tamil Nadu may need to communicate in Tamil regularly. This necessity will naturally motivate her to learn Tamil.
The State governments should facilitate language learning for such individuals. Promoting language education in this manner will encourage bilingualism and strengthen interregional communication across the country. Learning a language is a time-consuming process that cannot be achieved through imposition or force. No one will learn a language that is not useful to them, while people will be naturally motivated to learn a language that facilitates their communication with a larger number of people.
Linguistic harmony
In a multilingual society, besides the regional language, a second language will always emerge as a common means of communication among a large majority. When such a language gains widespread adoption, it naturally attains the status of a national language — not as a means of cultural imposition but as a tool for broader communication.
The Census data suggest that the perceived conflict between regional language and Hindi is largely exaggerated. Regional languages serve an essential role within their respective States, while a common language facilitates nationwide interaction. Thus, instead of viewing language through the lens of political and cultural contestation, it should be seen as a medium of communication.
The ideal way to promote the regional language is to establish language learning centres for the people with varying linguistic backgrounds. Establishing centres where people can learn different regional and national languages will bridge communication gaps. Another approach is to promote multilingual education at the school level by implementing a structured multilingual curriculum to enhance linguistic diversity. Finally, breaking linguistic barriers lies in embracing and promoting multilingualism rather than engaging in divisive debates over linguistic imposition.
India’s linguistic diversity is an asset, not a liability. The best way to preserve this diversity is to encourage multilingualism rather than restrict linguistic interactions. In the age of inter-State hypermobility, multilingualism is going to be the norm. Thus, the focus should be on inclusivity, accessibility, and practical communication, ensuring that no language is sidelined while maintaining an effective system for nationwide interaction.
(Vachaspati Shukla is an Assistant Professor at the Sardar Patel Institute of Economic and Social Research, and Santosh Kumar Dash is an Assistant Professor at Tribhuvan Sahkari University, Anand. Views are personal)
Published – May 22, 2025 12:21 am IST